Is mankind responsible for global warming? Essay

Chanmok. (2007). A worldwide temperature alteration and Human Pollution. AuthorHouse. This book especially recognizes the issue of a worldwide temperature alteration, and how it has been supposedly identified with the human exercises that influence the earth. The said exercises result to principally contamination that influences the nature’s capacity of adjusting the components of condition that really produces the living arrangement of people on Earth. It likewise includes various cases about the circumstance that makes it sure that people do have a section on the more noteworthy advancement of an unnatural weather change today and towards the future too. For the exploration to be taken care of, this writing would be a lot of accommodating as it would present the various issues that predicament the circumstance regarding human exercises influencing nature. H. Liu. (2005). Human exercises and a worldwide temperature alteration: a co-incorporation examination [An article from: Environmental Modeling and Software]. Elseiver Publishing. This article broadens the distinguishing proof of human inclusion in the feeling of existing a dangerous atmospheric devation today. The jeopardized frameworks in the earth today results to a less lightening arrangement of life that could have human exercises and this issue is what is included through this material. This explanatory material would expand the approval of the data introduced through the examination as it would introduce a few cases that are corresponding to the issue being handled in the exploration. Bruce Barcott. (2008). Our wrecked home: a dangerous atmospheric devation and natural surroundings lossâ€caused by usâ€are driving a mass eradication. (Basic exposition): An article from: On Earth [HTML]. Thompson Gale Publishing. This perusing has made a specific idea with respect to Barcott’s conviction with respects an Earth-wide temperature boost and the relationship of human exercises towards the arrangement of normal adjusting that later own outcomes overwhelming everything in the vicinity for the earth. The specific cases of the writer in this perusing fundamentally concerns the introduction of the genuine circumstance in a researchable methodology that would most build the research’s reasonableness for conversation. Nancy Kress. (2003). Not all that much. Brilliant Griffin Press; 1 release. In contrast to all other writing inside the unique circumstance, this book raises the idea that people have had nothing to do with the issues of a dangerous atmospheric devation. No doubt, through the contentions facilitated in this perusing, the thoughts of human contribution in the circumstance have been lifted for lucidity. For contention, this perusing would help the analyst in introducing the opposite side of the issue along these lines adjusting the methodology of the conversation to be utilized by the scientist with regards to the investigation. Michael E. Schlesinger. (2007). Human-Induced Climate Change: An Interdisciplinary Assessment. Cambrsidge University Press; 1 version. This perusing presents the various ways by which the circumstance could be managed. It likewise gives reaction to the various issues of the circumstance that are identified with human association in the said natural wonders. This perusing material will be a gigantic assistance in demonstrating that people have an incredible association to the circumstance being managed. Likely, the issue is then served in a more case-based clarification. Bill W. Tillery. (2006). Physical Science. McGraw Hill Higher Education; seventh version. This book presents the arrangement of natural adjusts that are expected to keep the frameworks of living on earth a lot of workable for presence. This book at that point will help in analyst with respects the association of human exercises with certain characteristic wonders happening today.

Persuasive Essay Topics - Are They Worth Fighting For?

Persuasive Essay Topics - Are They Worth Fighting For?Every course you go to, every textbook you open, and every other tool you possess for writing and lecturing will tell you that persuasive essay topics are so powerful that you have to fight for them. In the course of teaching thousands of people, I can honestly say that I never once did. Many of these topics were designed specifically to keep you motivated to write, which is fine, but the other reasons they were written that way were really poor.I have always thought it's a terrible idea to keep people on topic all the time, especially when you have so many other things to do. The truth is, not having to write down your topic, staying focused on your topic, and writing a well-written persuasive essay doesn't translate into a more enjoyable learning experience. The reason is that often students are talking about other things while they are doing their research and writing, and the entire conversation ends up being about some other subject that seems more interesting than the lecture itself. This doesn't make any sense, and it's time to stop doing this.I will say that there are some topics that will definitely cause you to fight for them. There are some topics that have lots of information available, or that have passionate people working to make their topic the best. These topics are not always the ones that will make you the most money, but I will happily be a donor for any topic that is worthy of being donated.One of the best reasons to fight for persuasive essay topics is simply because there are so many ways to write and talk about them. Every year, more colleges have rules and regulations about what types of topics can be taught, and if they do get to use a certain type of topic, the rules often require a certain level of essay topics in order to be approved. This means that if you're fighting for your topic, you have the support of a ton of people. Talk to the people who are getting the syllabus from th e school you're thinking of going to and see what people are saying about them.A very important distinction is to see which areas of the syllabus there are that people are still debating about. This doesn't mean that you agree with all of it, just that there are people fighting for these areas, and people disagreeing with it. If there are so many people arguing about it, then it's a good chance that you might want to fight for it.Another reason to fight for a topic is to make sure you have a really good argument, because this is how you make sure the audience has a good experience listening to you. I don't mind debating, and I'll go on the defensive, but you have to make sure you're making it well before you go into a dissertation about it.This should provide you with some ideas for making arguments and really fighting for persuasive essay topics. If you really need any more help, just ask me and I'll be happy to send you an e-book.

Surname Meaning and Family History Gupta

As you might already know, the surname Gupta (sometimes spelled Guptta) originates in and is still most commonly found in the country of India. The name is derived from the Sanskrit  goptri, meaning military governor, ruler, or protector. Unlike most  other Indian surnames, the surname  Gupta  is present in various different communities across India, irrespective of caste. Among the most famous Guptas include a long line of Gupta kings, who ruled India for about 200 years—the Gupta Dynasty dates back to 240 – 280 AD. Common Locations Guptas are especially  common in Delhi, where it is the fifth most common surname. However, this surname distribution website does not have data from all regions of India. Within India, Gupta ranks among the top 30 surnames in  Uttar Pradesh (13th),  Haryana (15th), Punjab (16th), Sikkim (20th),  Uttarkhand and Jammu and Kashmir (23rd),  Chandigarh (27th),  Madhya Pradesh (28th), and Bihar,  Maharashtra and Rajasthan (30th). Despite being the 156th most common last name in the world, according to surname distribution data from Forebears, Gupta is not a very common name outside of India; however, Gupta is fairly common in Nepal (57th) and somewhat common in Bangladesh (280th). Guptas can also be found quite regularly in Poland, where the name ranks 419th, as well as England (549th) and Germany (871st). Famous Guptas Maharaja Sri-Gupta, founder of the Gupta  empireJagadish Gupta, Bengali poet and novelistNeena Gupta,  Indian film and television actress and directorShashi Bhusan Das Gupta, Bengali scholarManmath Nath Gupta,  Indian revolutionarySanjay Gupta, CNN Chief Medical Correspondent Sources Cottle, Basil.  Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1967.Hanks, Patrick and Flavia Hodges.  A Dictionary of Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1989.

Taking a Look at the Black Death - 835 Words

The Black Death The Black Death was a very lethal and deadly epidemic. It has been widely debated years ago what the black plague really was, how the epidemic had spread, why and how were the Jewish people were responsible for the outbreak or not, and how people attempted to put a halt to the plague. Even up to this day scientists are still observing the DNA of the infected people found at mass burials . It was such a complex and widespread disease that no one can stop it and it killed a large amount of Europe’s population. It wasn’t one simple disease; there were many mutations and adaptation to it that the thought of treatment was just outrageous. Many Christians and other religions blamed the Jews for the events that had occurred even when they had no considerable evidence that is was the Jewish people who started this outbreak. The Black Death was a devastating event in the history of the world. It has an estimated 70-250 million deaths in the 14th century. There was an overload of bodies to bury therefore the people of the time had to create mass graves for the infected people. Only a few had the reward of being buried in a legitimate cemetery. The disease arrived in Sicily in 1347-it came from trading ships from the black sea. The men on the boats were mysteriously dying from an unknown affliction. The ships were filled with blood and other human fragments. This is why it is called â€Å"the Black Death†. This plague has already entered Egypt, China, India,Show MoreRelatedEssay about Taking a Look Back at the Black Death755 Words   |  4 Pagesbut also was the one responsible for bringing the plague known as the â€Å"Black Death, Great Pestilence, or even the Great Plague;† it was a combination of three different plagues from three different bacterial strains: bubonic, pneumonic, and septicemic (Background Essay). No matter which type one was affected by, it almost always led to a death, agonizing death. When Europe and the Middle East were struck with the Black Death in the mid-14th century, religion was the most important aspect of everyone’sRead MoreEssay about Black on Black Crime928 Words   |  4 PagesBlack on black violence is an enormous problem in the African-American community. Living in a neighborhood that is mostly minority, many may have witnessed a lot of black on black violence. The black on black violence has continued to arise in many communities and continues to be a problem around the world. Black on black violence is ignorant, and many black Americans should be coming together instead of killing one another. African-Americans people should be helping each other achieve in the worldRead MoreThe Language Of Contemporary Art1729 Words   |  7 PagesPlayful In this image the children appear playful and in a relaxed environment su rrounded by adults taking care of them. They appear to be in the age range of 3 to 6 years old. Sign 2 Adults Grown up Nurturing Mature Elder Respected The adults seem to be taking care of the children and are depicted as being caring, friendly, loving, attached to the children. They remind me of teachers taking care of children in a kindergarten. Sign 3 Lying Down Resting Napping Sleeping Relaxed The man holdingRead MoreThe Ad On Gun Violence1444 Words   |  6 Pageswhether the gun laws are strict enough. It is sad to hear about some sort of gun violence or death of a person each day on the news or social media. Each day more and more lives are affected and thought of not seeing tomorrow arises. The question comes up of how the United States can stop the casualties of thousands. The answer is to get rid of handguns. The best way to put a stop to all of these deaths is showing awareness. The author of the poster tries to portray a huge public service announcementRead MoreYoung Goodman Brown and the Ministers Black Veil Essay1054 Words   |  5 PagesWhen taking a look at America’s short but significant history, we find that this nation was partly founded through religious ideals. Since its beginning, religion has helped to define the American Identity into what it is today. And this was explored throughout American literature especially in the Hawthorneâ€⠄¢s The Minister’s Black Veil and Young Goodman Brown. Hawthorne’s The Minister’s Black Veil is a parable, suggests his purpose for writing. According to Webster’s dictionary, a parable is aRead MoreMedieval Diseases And Treatment Research1026 Words   |  5 Pagestime, there was the Black Death, leprosy, measles, and typhoid fever. These were most likely transported because of dirty bedsheets and blankets, unwashed clothing, and rodents. The treatments for these diseases and other things, such as medicine for stomach pains, medicine for wounds, and medicine for headaches, are different from today’s standards. The name of Black Death arrived because of the symptoms that were present. When a person has been affected by Black Death, they would have blackenedRead MoreAre You a Reaper?1091 Words   |  4 Pagespage, bookmarked by a single cut gold thread. The ends frayed from years of use, yet the shine still there. Even after so many years. The owner of the hand smiles, her unusual blue eyes dull with unseen age. Long black hair cascading down her back. The darkness blurring with her black robes. Her face young. Unblemished. Impossibly so even as her eyes show a great number of years. Their irises showing the only color. Blue. Impossible. Yet here they were. Piercing, scanning the pages until they landRead MoreResearch on The Black Death Essay1037 Words   |  5 Pagesof course, of the Black Death of Europe. The Black Death or as its also known as â€Å"Bubonic Plague†, was a serious pandemic that infected Europe and nearly wiped out 60% of its population during its 2 year spread all across Europe. A rough estimate of about 60-200 million people were claimed as victims of The Black Death. At the time, which was around the 1400s, there was no way to cure the sickness and if you had it, you most likely were left to die in the streets. The Black death lingered on for centuriesRead MoreDr. Gaines s A Lesson Before Dying1187 Words   |  5 PagesAlthough death is a constant presence in E arnest J. Gaines’s A Lesson Before Dying, in the deep South, death by electrocution was most common. Even though death is a standard occurrence in the novel, these events are still notorious for being disturbing to any witness of them, white or black. When is it justified to sentence a man to death for committing homicide? Could the word justice suffice? Did equality seem fitting? Is it in fact a lesson learned? It seems impossible to be taught a lesson whenRead MoreThe Black Death1060 Words   |  5 PagesThe Black Death, a term coined in the sixteenth century refers to the pandemic that cut Europe’s population nearly in half from 1348-1350. The disease is thought to have come from Central Asia through the trade routes. Taking a ride from the trade ships, black rats, which carry the disease infected fleas, were introduced into European ports. From the ports, the disease eventually spread to the rest of Europe. The disease was caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis. This bacteria caused three types

Risk, Safety and Leadership Essay Example For Students

Risk, Safety and Leadership Essay Ezra LucasStratford UniversityWhy do people do what they do? Why do they do things that do not seem logical? Why do people change what they do according to the social context? How do social arrangements influence judgment and decision-making? How is risk logical? These are the issues that concern the social psychology of risk. The social psychology of risk is the application of the principles of social psychology to risk. I found an article by Dr. Robert Long and he had a foundation of this discipline. He emerged from his postgraduate studies in occupational health and safety. (Long, 2012)Social psychology of risk is concerned with how social arrangements affect decision-making and judgment in danger. What this means is that all social relations, social environments, discourse and organization affect human judgment and decision-making in danger. Risk is not objective, rather the perception of risk is conditioned by social psychological factors. It shows that risk perception varies wi th life experience, cognitive bias, memory, visual and special literacy, expertise, allocation, framing, priming and anchoring. In other words, risk is a sense of built human sense associated with uncertainty, probability and context. (Slovic, 2006) For example, the risk of a person is the opportunity of another person. Social arrangements give us meaning, purpose and accomplishment. Social arrangements also determine how we make decisions and judgments. Risk is not an engineering problem, but a social psychological problem. A technical approach to risk tends to have its training and focus on objects. Although it is great to observe what engineers think and build, it is not at the center of this discipline to understand human organization, collective consciousness and the collective unconscious in response to objects. The challenge for leaders is to understand risk as a compromise governed by the social psychology of goals. The key to maturity of leadership in risk is to understand the nature of motivation and why people do what they do. In addition, leaders need to understand that fallibility and human risk create a problem. These problems extend beyond the notion of complexity and are known for their unavailability and failure. If leadership is to be mature in risk, it must understand how objectives compete (Cameron Quinn, 2009). If leadership is to be ripe, it must understand how risk creates meaning (through compromises and by-products) for humans and leaders, and how to generate vision, influence others and promote intelligence risk. (Riggio, 2016) focuses on the social relationship or social contract between the leader and the followers as a path towards leadership maturity and wisdom in risk. The social contract between leadership and follow-up is much more than the traits of the leader. Somewhere along the journey, the managerial discourse has lost sight of the follower, the social contract and the social arrangements. This is where the social psychology of risk enters the discussion and asks the question: What social arrangements create a maturity of effective leadership in risk?ConclusionThe idea of maturity and wisdom in risk is not a common discourse in industry, but we mean the predominance of the language of controls and the police. Maturity can be understood as an endless journey up a set of escalators, maturity and wisdom, one never arrives but still remembers undeveloped stages of development. ReferencesRiggio, R. E. (2016). Are Leadership and Management Essential for Good Research? Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232551601_Leadership_development_The_current_state_and_future_expectations Cameron, K. S., Quinn, R. E. (2009). Developing a Discipline of Positive Organizational Scholarship. http://dx.doi.org/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/e369/e41e957a3923f7b99dcfb25ec9cd22ba9052.pdfLong, R. (2012). Risk interpretation and action: A conceptual framework for responses to natural hazards. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212420912000040

The Life of a Slave

Abstract Slaves were captured from Africa, mistreated tortured and abused from the 16th century to early 19th century. This paper reviews the general hardships that a slave went through in the hands of their white masters. The poor living conditions and denial of basic needs. It also features how the law and the constitution of that time never protected slaves.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Life of a Slave specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Introduction Between 1800 and 1877, millions of slaves were captured from the West African Coast and sailed to North America on over loaded ships through the Atlantic Ocean. The two months trip left many sick and some dead. Those who died on the way were thrown into the ocean a completely barbarous and inhumane action. The survivors were sold on arrival as property to the highest bidder at auctions separating them from their kith and kin[1]. The newly bought slave s were expected to work in the tobacco, sugar, cotton and rice plantations in their new Master’s home. Also all domestic work i.e. cleaning, gardening, nursing, transporting domestic goods etc was done by them. The domestic slaves were referred to as House slaves while the plantation slaves were known as Field slaves. The two kinds of slaves were exposed to different levels of mistreatment, torture and suffering. The house slaves were believed to have better living conditions than the field slaves as discussed below,. House Slaves House slaves had better living conditions compared to field slaves in that they ate better food slept in better shelters and even wore better clothes[2]. William Wells Brown who was a house slave in Lexington, Kentucky revealed his autobiography in a narrative where he clearly states that he was born a house slave and he was better clothed than the slaves the field because he was given the worn out clothes of his masters family, he ate the leftovers and slept in the basement. He also quotes that he was not forced to wake up at the ring of the bell at dawn like the field servants who were severely punished if they were a minute late. William would wake up thirty minutes after the ringing of the bell[3]. This was not what happened in all homesteads as Harriet Jacobs explains how her mistress used to spit on all pans and kettles after being served breakfast on Sunday mornings when she was around to prevent them from eating the leftovers. â€Å"If dinner was not served at the exact time on that particular Sunday, she would station herself in the kitchen, and wait till it was dished, and then spit in all the kettles and pans that had been used for cooking. She did this to prevent the cook and her children from eking out their meager fare with the remains of the gravy and other scrapings. The slaves could get nothing to eat except what she chose to give them† [4].Advertising Looking for research paper on history? Let's s ee if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Field Slaves After introduction of the plantation system in America farmers discovered that buying slaves was far much cheaper than hiring laborers and this was the main promoter of slave trade in America. Plantation farmers required able-bodied Africans who could undertake strenuous work in the fields for long hours. Field slaves, both men and women, worked in the cotton, tobacco, sugar and rice plantation daily from sun rise to sun set and during harvesting they would work for as long as 18 hours. Pregnant women were not exempted from working till they delivered. Shortly after giving birth, they would forcefully resume to their respective duties and they were only allowed to see and breastfeed their children thrice between sunrise and sunset. The young babies were left at the care of old women who were so weak to work in the fields[5]. They were supposed to cook and look after all children under the age o f working. Another freed slave, Frederick Douglass in his autobiography expresses how they were mistreated and forced to work under harsh weather conditions all through the year. â€Å"We were worked in all weathers. It was never too hot or too cold; it could never rain, blow, hail, or snow, too hard for us to work in the field. Work, work, work, was scarcely more the order of the day than of the night. The longest days were too short for him, and the shortest nights too long for him. I was somewhat unmanageable when I first went there, but a few months of this discipline tamed me. Mr. Covey succeeded in breaking me. I was broken in body, soul, and spirit. My natural elasticity was crushed, my intellect languished, the disposition to read departed, the cheerful spark that lingered about my eye died; the dark night of slavery closed in upon me; and behold a man transformed into a brute!† [6]. If a slave was just a few minutes late for his duty he would find himself begging his master to refrain from cruelly punishing him. Men and women were ruthlessly whipped in front of their children. Slave punishment Slaves were punished by their overseers brutally for some common and simple mistakes. According to James Ramsay a doctor in St. Kitts who was working for a number of sugar plantation slaves were butchered and bullied by the ruthless overseers as quoted below.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Life of a Slave specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More â€Å"The ordinary punishments of slaves, for the common crimes of neglect, absence from work, eating the sugar cane, theft, are cart whipping, beating with a stick, sometimes to the breaking of bones, the chain, an iron crook about the neck†¦ a ring about the ankle, and confinement in the dungeon. There have been instances of slitting of ears, breaking of limbs, so as to make amputation necessary, beating out of eyes, and castrati on†¦ In short, in the place of decency, sympathy, morality and religion; slavery produces cruelty and oppression. It is true, that the unfeeling application of the ordinary punishments ruins the constitution, and shortens the life of many a poor wretch† [7]. The Law at that time did not protect slaves in any way from abuse and torture from their masters. The owners of the plantations allowed the Brutal overseers to handle all the supervision of the plantation. They also pressured them for maximum production and this in turn was translated to the slaves through whipping and other inhumane forms of punishment. In some instances it was very extreme to the point that the slaves were tortured to death, Olaudah Equiano gives a perfect example of such a situation where a Negro was hanged to unconsciousness and the burnt to death. It was alleged that the Negro had attempted to poison a brutal overseer but never succeeded [8].More contributions of the law in promoting slavery are discussed below under the Black codes. Slave Branding Slaves were branded as animals with red hot metal on various parts of their bodies e.g. on the cheeks, thighs.and arms. This was to make sure that their owner would easily be recognized by any white man and hence prevent them from running away. For instance in 1838 a slave woman who was branded the letter M on her face had escaped with her two sons and it was advertised in the North Carolina Standard of 28th July that a price of twenty dollars would be offered to anyone who would capture her. Also 1845 one wealthy man branded a boy called Reuben the words â€Å"slave for life† [9] on his face. Slaves Education In North America education for black people was not forbidden by law but in the south it was a crime to educate slaves according to an Excerpt from South Carolina Act of 1740Advertising Looking for research paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Whereas, the having slaves taught to write, or suffering them to be employed in writing, may be attended with great inconveniences; Be it enacted, that all and every person and persons whatsoever, who shall hereafter teach or cause any slave or slaves to be taught to write, or shall use or employ any slave as a scribe, in any manner of writing whatsoever, hereafter taught to write, every such person or persons shall, for every such offense, forfeit the sum of one hundred pounds, current money [10]. Black literacy was viewed as a threat to slavery in that the esteemed slaves who were able to write and read, just like singers, they would convince other slaves to revolt against slavery. This was one of the main reasons why the south enacted laws prohibiting their education. Religion played a major role in advocating for slaves education. Anglicans in the south argued that slaves were entitled to a right to freedom of worship and for this to be achieved slaves had to be able to read the word of God from the Bible. This led to amendments of some laws and as a school for slaves was established in South Carolina in 1743[11]. Although more schools emerged White were trying all their best to control it as a result they formulated a curriculum for blacks people that was less competitive compared to the one offered to white children. Almost everyone was forced to participate in educating each other with the little knowledge he had acquired .this happened on the plantations, on holidays when they had free time and at night. This helped in wiping out the clichà © used by most white men, â€Å"the bigger the fool the better the nigger†[12]. Black Codes These were law and constitutional amendments that were enacted in 1865-1866 to ensure that America was dominated by whites and slaves provided cheap labor. It also helped in depriving freed slaves of their liberties for instance the Ohio and Illinois States enacted laws that prohibited black slaves from immigrating in to these states[13]. Most of these laws were meant to suppress freed slaves but some of them showed some sense of morality though in directly e.g. in Texas overseers were incriminated for torturing or using offensive language in front of employers (plantation owners) or their family. The Ku Klux Klan also contributed to the implementation of the black codes by torturing and killing republicans and sympathetic white people who showed mercy on slaves[14]. The Klans dressed fiercely in white robe and conical hats to scare anyone who sided with slaves or advocated for their rights. Conclusion I agree with Eugene Genovese and his book â€Å"Roll, Jordan, Roll: The world the slaves made† where he explains how white considered their feeding and clothing as a burden and a duty they were obliged to not considering their mistreatment and torturing them [15]. They even claimed some appreciation from the slaves to make them feel as normal moral beings[16]. All these were attempts to just ify their evil actions of which they were completely aware of. References Black Codes 1865-66, â€Å"Black codes† http://home.gwu.edu/~jjhawkin/BlackCodes/rptBlackCodes.pdf ,1. Eugene Genovese, â€Å"Roll, Jordan, Roll: The world the slaves made† (2008) http://foseti.wordpress.com/2008/12/21/review-of-roll-jordan-roll-by-eugene-genovese/ , 75,60,146. John Simkin,  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Race Relations in the United States† (2008) http://educationforum.ipbhost.com/index.php?showtopic=13774 , para.3 Our Story, â€Å"Historic time period 1801–1877: Slave Life and the Underground Railroad†, http://americanhistory.si.edu/ourstory/activities/slavelife/ Slave Life in Virginia and Kentucky, â€Å"Difficulties of Training me† (nd) http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/fedric/fedric.html , 18. Slave Narratives, †William Wells Brown’s: Narrative of a Fugitive Slave by Christine Haug†, http://www.victoriana.com/history/slavenarratives.htm Slave Punishments, â€Å"Olaudah Equiano: Another negro man was half hanged, and then burnt, for attempting to poison a cruel overseer†, http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USASpunishments.htm Slavery and the making of America, â€Å"Historical Overview† (2004), http://www.pbs.org/wnet/slavery/experience/education/history2.html , 2. Slavery and the making of America, â€Å"Original documents† (2004), http://www.pbs.org/wnet/slavery/experience/education/docs1.html . Spartacus Educational : †House Slaves† (2003), http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USASdomestic.htm para.1 Spartacus Educational, â€Å"Field Slaves† (2008) http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USASwork.htm para.1-3 Spartacus Educational, â€Å"Harriet Jacobs† (2008) ,http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/Sjacobs.htm Spartacus Educational, â€Å"Slave Punishments: James Ramsay, Essay on the Treatment and Conversion of African Slaves in the British Sugar Colonies† (1784), http://www.s partacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USASpunishments.htm St. Louis Gazette, (November 6th, 1845) Reuben A slave branded on the face http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USASbranding.htm Footnotes Our Story, â€Å"Historic time period 1801–1877: Slave Life and the Underground Railroad†, http://americanhistory.si.edu/ourstory/activities/slavelife/ Spartacus Educational : †House Slaves† (2003), http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USASdomestic.htm para.1 Slave Narratives, †William Wells Brown’s: Narrative of a Fugitive Slave by Christine Haug†, http://www.victoriana.com/history/slavenarratives.htm Spartacus Educational, â€Å"Harriet Jacobs† (2008) ,http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/Sjacobs.htm Spartacus Educational, â€Å"Field Slaves† (2008) http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USASwork.htm para.1-2 Spartacus Educational, Field Slaves (2008) http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USASwork.htm para.3 Spartacus Educational, â€Å"Sl ave Punishments: James Ramsay, Essay on the Treatment and Conversion of African Slaves in the British Sugar Colonies† (1784), http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USASpunishments.htm Slave Punishments, â€Å"Olaudah Equiano: Another negro man was half hanged, and then burnt, for attempting to poison a cruel overseer† http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USASpunishments.htm St. Louis Gazette, (November 6th, 1845) Reuben A slave branded on the face http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USASbranding.htm Slavery and the making of America, â€Å"Original documents† (2004), http://www.pbs.org/wnet/slavery/experience/education/docs1.html Slavery and the making of America, â€Å"Historical Overview† (2004), http://www.pbs.org/wnet/slavery/experience/education/history2.html , 2. Slave Life in Virginia and Kentucky, â€Å"Difficulties of Training me† http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/fedric/fedric.html , 18. Black Codes 1865-66, â€Å"Black codes† http://h ome.gwu.edu/~jjhawkin/BlackCodes/rptBlackCodes.pdf ,1. John Simkin,  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Race Relations in the United States† (2008) http://educationforum.ipbhost.com/index.php?showtopic=13774 , para.3 Eugene Genovese, â€Å"Roll, Jordan, Roll: The world the slaves made† (2008) http://foseti.wordpress.com/2008/12/21/review-of-roll-jordan-roll-by-eugene-genovese/ , 75,60 Eugene Genovese, â€Å"Roll, Jordan, Roll: The world the slaves made† (2008) http://foseti.wordpress.com/2008/12/21/review-of-roll-jordan-roll-by-eugene-genovese/ , 146. This research paper on The Life of a Slave was written and submitted by user Silvermane to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Censorship of Pornography

Censorship of Pornography The Ethical Case For and Against Censorship of Pornography The controversy surrounding pornography is complicated not only by a lack of agreement on whether pornography should be allowed in our society, but also by a basic disagreement over what is included in the definition of pornography. Emotions run high and scientific rigour falls aside where it comes to studies of the effect of pornography, the use of these studies in mass media and in academic debates. Sifting through mountains of rhetoric can be confusing, when few entering the debate can even agree on what pornography is, much less what are its corrosive effects. The first task of this paper, therefore, shall be to begin at the beginning, and clarify the differing definitions or idea about pornography that are at play in recent academic debates. Secondly, we will examine the arguments for and against pornography, be it by way of censorship or not. We will want to pay particular attention to the way in which one argument (that of American feminist Mackinnon and Dworkin) are mischarac terized and misunderstood, and why. Finally, we will look at the underlying assumptions of ethical systems that are being used here as points of reference; I will argue that much of the disagreement about this issue is due to the fact that the various sides (and there are far more than two) are appealing to wildly different (and perhaps incompatible) ethical systems. On the one hand, there are those that appeal to utilitarianism, while others appeal to an individualistic, existentialist ethics. Let us begin, then, with the very different ways that pornography is characterized and defined. In popular parlance (and many of the arguments depend on this commonly held conception) pornography means materials that are sexual in nature, usually in a way that is offensive to one self or the mainstream public. Proof of this position, as well as of its hypocrisy, lies with the fact that much of art in the Western tradition that which is displayed in museums – depicts sexually explicit material. There is no question that this is art, not pornography. The second common distinction is one that is drawn between pornography and erotica. As described by Nettie Pollard in her article, The Modern Pornography Debates, qualifying as erotica are representations of a sexually explicit nature, but which are not violent or degrading to women; pornography, on the other hand is harmful because it is violent or sexually degrading to women. This distinction is murky, however, because sometimes the distinction is mean to signal the difference between visual materials (pornography includes the Greek term graphe, or visual representation), whereas erotica is then used to refer to written materials describing erotic acts. This last way of delineating the matter appeals to the belief that whereas pornography appeals to men because their sexuality is more visual, erotica appeals to women’s more internal and intellectual connection to sexuality. However, any feminist worth her salt would refuse both distinctions as being false. Why? Because in either case, the division between erotica (good) and pornography (bad) is just a way of distinguishing the erotic and sexually explicit materials that you find acceptable with that which you do not find acceptable. The problem is that, in trying to censor pornography, no one wants to have to ban any and all erotically or sexually explicit materials (we all think Michelangelos David is beautiful), but only some. But then, that means that someone has to make a call, draw the line between good and bad sexualities (and their representations). That we should be more preoccupied with punishing bad representations, not what they represent, seems to escape the debate; why you should not get flogged for producing boring or canned pornography? It is specifically in order to capture only the morally reprehensible depictions of sex that McKinnon and Dworkin carefully re-defined pornography as a practice of sex discrimination which sexualizes the subordination of women and which eroticizes violence against women: as a political practice of power and powerlessness which eroticizes dominance and submission. (As quoted in Pollard, 2). This definition is important, first of all, because it re-describes pornography as a practice. McKinnon, who is both a feminist and an attorney, understood what she was doing when she did this. She sought, specifically, to bypass the debate over pornography in terms of censorship, and claims to first amendment rights (in America). Even though Mackinnon and Dworkin are often misrepresented as being in the pro-censorship camp (such as in the article by Avedon Carol entitled The Harm of Porn: Just Another Excuse to Censor), they were explicitly and firmly against censorship, and saw this as a dead end in their attempt to curtail violent or harmful pornography. Their ordinance (proposed, passed, then overturned in Minneapolis, MN) took pornography to be a practice that produced harms to women in particular, harms that individual women were not able to mitigate against; secondly, their ordinance sought to make it possible for women to gain the right to litigate against the harms of pornography in a court of law– that is, to sue the producers and distributors of violent pornography for inciting or causing violence against them in particular, or as a class of people, in the case of a class action suit. If those impacted by violent pornography (and not just women) could show, in a court a law, a link between th e consumption of pornography and a crime committed against them. (I suspect that Carol understands this, as she leaves the matter vague, only implying Mackinnon and Dworkins support of censorship). MacKinnon and Dworkins strategy had other strengths built in: it was meant to bi-pass a generation of faulty scientific research on the subject, as described by Carol in her previously mentioned article. It sought to not have to have feminists making the call between what is good and bad pornography, by waiting to make this call on the effects of particular representations. Finally, it was meant to put financial pressure on the producers of pornography to make pornography that was not violent nor degrading to women. But the beauty of the ordinance was that it did not rely on gender specificity – under the same ordinance, producers of pornography putting minors or even men at risk would be liable to a negative judgment and (hopefully) resulting in bankruptcy. In any case, as many feminists pointed out at the time, there are already laws against the rape, torture, mutilation, and un-consented to acts against women; censoring their representations does little to address these pro blems. As the Americans say, the proof would have to be found in the pudding. This is not to say that there where not feminists who were rallying against porn in the late seventies and early eighties, and that they did not become the voice that came to represent the feminist position in mainstream media representations of the debate, such as is described by Carol. Arguable, the misrepresentation of McKinnon and Dworkin as being in the censorship camp is as gross a misrepresentation (serving the same interests) as the misrepresentation of the feminist position as naturally anti-porn. Perhaps the reason for both distortions has to do with the fact that it was this conservative (and liberal in the traditional sense) group of feminist who most resonated with the puritanical American mainstream – what Pollard calls the moralist position, or the traditional, conservative critique of pornography (Pollard, 2) that has sought scientific evidence as grounds for suspending the first amendment rights of some through censorship. The attempt to find scientific grounds for making the call between good and bad representations of sex is well explained in Avedon Carol’s piece on The Harm of Porn. She explains how a generation of right-wing, moralist men, beginning with Dolf Zillman and not ending with Edward Donnerstien, attempted to find a connection between violence and anti-social behavior, and the consumption of pornographic images. The story of Donnerstein connecting the higher pulse rates and skin temperature of young men viewing pornography (and here the irony that in order to work against it, these poor moralists had to expose themselves repeatedly to the corrupting materials!) to a preparatory towards committing violence (Carol, 2-3). The studies would be humorous, had then not been taken so seriously and cast such a long shadow. But then the question becomes, why did these studies stick; why do so many even today believe there is a link between pornography and violence (the link often being made through representations of S/M)? People believe what they already want to believe, and the mainstream of America and British people are puritanical. But perhaps there is more to it†¦. There always have been, and always will be, women whose relation to sex and their own sexualities makes it inconceivable to accept what others might enjoy, represent, and respond to sexually. They are often posited as opposed to libertarians and sex radicals, but in reality there is no clear cut opposition between these groups and positions. That is, it is possible for a radical lesbian separatist who feels it is her duty to violate societal norms of decency by not only sleeping with women, but by sleeping regularly with more than one , who nonetheless finds pornography loathsome, and who acts much like the Christian church lady in her activism around censoring mainstream pornography. So, now, lets look at the moralist position that pornography threatens the moral order. In the extreme, this position is like a no avatars position – sex should not be seen, period. This could be based on the view that sex is dirty and shameful, and that sexuality should only be in the service of reproduction within the context of monogamous heterosexual marriage, and these are usually reasons given. Or, more plausible to this writer, it could be that explicit representations of sex never looks like what it feels, and so carries with it a necessary air of corruption and falsity. (It follows that in order to truly represent sex, desire, or ecstasis, the last thing that you would represent would be sex acts, which means that a ban on the representation of sex and sexuality would take us far and wide indeed.) Not unlike the argument that Plato gives in The Republic against artists and playwrights, this is also the reason why some religions forbid the representations of God, as necessary falsifying.) Unfortunately, there representations are often produced by an for men, and are often used as a stand in for sexual education; when young men learn to value sex for what it looks like, and by extension to value women by what they look like, then I cannot deny that we have a problem. Additionally, there is the larger problem that the representation of sex is itself a sexual practice that cannot help but habituate and homogenize sexual behaviors. So, the charge of corruption sticks, but not for the reasons that are usually given; it is worth mentioning, however, that the rote reason given (that it threatens the social order) is grounded in these latter reasons, even if these reasons are assumed and not made explicit by those who see themselves as living a morally upright existence. The moral right tends to get lazy when it comes to having to actually make an argument. Still, many of the more conservative arguments from feminist have to do not with how pornography may corrupt human sexuality – women and mens but with the alleged hard it does to women – the view that is attribute to the British government by Pollard (Pollard, 1). The effect and impact of pornography (violent or not, degrading of women or not) on women is different than it is on men, yet no feminist has tried to make these differences explicit. Furthermore, that this harm is like the concept of race – no such thing exists, but it continues to shape our beliefs and behaviors – seems not to destroy the case of those who seek to censor pornography – both in America and Britain recent efforts have been stepped up to crack down on the makers of sexually explicit materials. We may want to ask, why not? It could be that the moralists can afford to be lazy with their arguments because they seem to have the strong arm of the law, and the force of long custo m, on their side. Andrea Dworkin and Catherine McKinnon’s re-definition of pornography in terms of a practice that causes harm, ironically, opened a new avenue for those who sought to censor lewd materials. The argument addressed by Andrew Koppleman (Does Obscenity Cause Moral Harm?) and Rae Langton and Caroline West (Scorekeeping in a Pornographic Language Game) goes like this: if pornography is a practice, and to practice something entails action, then pornography is close to action. (There are also arguments about the performative aspect of language that get aligned with this argument, e.g., pornography as speech, and more specifically hate speech.) Actions have consequences and effect, and the effect of pornography is generally harm to women who are degraded in and by pornographic representations; it silences and subordinates women in the way that racially hateful or homophobic speech affects those marked racially or by way of perceived sexual preference. As Langton and Rae point out, neith er the older theory that pornography rationally conditions violence, not irrationally has the same effect; but what is the point of this distinction when the harm caused by pornography cannot be proved by the means that we usually accept – that is, by scientific means. The best chance of proving and establishing this link may have been with McKinnon’s ordinance (by legal precedence), but this attempt was turned back by the court. And, if we are to look at effect, the effect of all this talk of censoring pornography has only led to its growth and popularity. Maybe the best way to beat the probably real but improvable harms of porn is to beat it – to make better, less harmful, maybe even empowering representations. Let the marketplace decide this issue, as it decides everything else. Perhaps it will not be surprising that those on the opposite liberal, left, or radical edge of the debate over pornography rely on assumptions so similar as those on the right as to be indistinguishable. One line of reasoning goes like this: sex and sexuality is at the core of individual identity, and the attempt to foreclose its expression, irregardless of how much we like or dislike any given expression, is dehumanizing. Some women may be exploited in the sex industry, or by their husbands, or by their bosses at work. The law recognizes limits to women being exploited. Ironically, what developed from the attempt to censor pornography in modern times has been a rather large discourse on pornography and sexuality that has only helped the industry grow by leaps and bounds, become less taboo and more accepted, and diversify into pornography made by women and for women. There is now consensus that the voices that used to dominate in the feminist movement, voices against pornography and in favor of censorship, have become less powerful; the new feminists are pro-sex and for its representation. This does not mean that any and all sexualities should be protected from censorship. We can still, as a society, disallow materials that are harmful to minors, or which results in negligent hard done to anyone in the course of its being made. Other than this, if you don’t’ like S/M, then you should not expose yourself to these materials. This debate over pornography strikes me as a lot of smoke and mirror, with sides talking past each other because they dont agree on what they are talking about to begin with, not seeing how much grounds there is for agreement, and each relying on faulty evidence and lazy reasoning. But in the end, it may be that the real differences may lie with the basic ethical assumptions behind the impulse to deal with pornography through censorship or by other means: Those who want to make the harm argument rely on a universal utilitarian paradigm that shows that he harms of pornography outweighs the need to protect the first Amendment Rights of pornographers, or vice versa (that pornography should not be censored because it is not worth the sacrifice in restricting freedom of speech). IF this is the case, then the debate becomes about the perceived harms and goods, and the means of measuring and balancing these. Those who enter into the debate on these terms assume that society has the right an d responsibility to create balance. (The libertarian believes the free market naturally restores and maintains the balance.) But the debate is also being had under completely different assumptions and on another plain. The existentialist and individualistic tendencies (of Americans in particular) lead to the assumption that id sexuality is a core around which individuals can come to define their identities, then to limit the expression of such by any means is to do metaphysical harm to the individual, who is the seat of morality (and not the government or society at large). The existentialist would not grant government or the market any role in the debate, only good and bad faith. It is a matter of scale: do moral questions get made by individuals who chose to participate in the pornography industry (be it as consumers, models, filmmakers, artists, distributors, etc.) or is morality a matter of social convention – or, of a yet higher force. In the end, the ethical case for or against censorship of pornographic materials comes down to this: to the incompatibility not of positions pro or con, but of ethical systems.